Natural Vegetation and Wildlife

Natural Vegetation: The naturally growing plant cover; without human aid; is called natural vegetation. The vegetation which has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time is called virgin vegetation.

Flora: Plant species of a particular region or period are called flora.

Fauna: The animal species of a particular region or period are called fauna.

Factors which affect the diversity of flora and fauna:

RELIEF:

Land: Land directly and indirectly affects the natural vegetation. Nature of land influences the type of vegetation. If the land is level and fertile, it is mainly used for farming. If the land is uneven then grassland and woodlands develop over it.

Soil: Different types of soil are fit for different types of vegetation. For example; sandy soil is fit for cactus and thorny bushes, while wet and marshy soil is fit for mangrove vegetation.

CLIMATE

Temperature and Humidity: Temperature and humidity are the main factors which determine the character and extent of vegetation. An area with high temperature and high humidity supports evergreen forest, while an area with high temperature and low humidity supports thorny bushes.

Photoperiod (Sunlight): The duration of sunlight is called photoperiod. Photoperiod depends on latitude, altitude, season and duration of the day. Trees grow faster in summer because of longer photoperiod.

Precipitation: If an area gets heavy rainfall, it is suitable for the growth of dense vegetation. On the other hand, an area with scanty rainfall is suitable for thorny bushes.

Ecosystem: All the plants and animals in an area are interdependent on each other. The plants and animals; alongwith their physical environment make the ecosystem. A very large ecosystem is called a biome. Biomes are identified on the basis of plants.

TYPES OF VEGETATION

There are five major types of vegetation in India: Tropical Rainforests, Tropical Deciduous Forests, Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs, Montane Forests and Mangrove Forests.

Tropical Rain Forests

• The tropical rainforests are confined to areas of heavy rainfall. Such areas are in the Western Ghats, upper parts of Assam, Tamil Nadu coast and the island groups of Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar.
• Areas which receive more 200 cm of rainfall and have a short dry season are the best area for tropical rainforest. Almost all kinds of vegetation; like trees, shrubs and creepers; are found in such a forest. The forest has a multilayered structure.
• Ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona are some of the commercially important trees of tropical rainforests.
• Elephants, monkey, lemur and deer are the common animals in these forests. Apart from them, a large number of birds, bats, sloth, scorpions and snails are also found in tropical rainforests.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

Tropical deciduous forests are the most widespread forests of India. They are spread in those regions which get rainfall between 200 cm and 70 cm. They are also called the monsoon forests. The trees of tropical deciduous rainforests shed their leaves during summer.

These forests can be divided into two types on the basis of availability of water.

(a) Moist Deciduous Forest: The moist deciduous forests are found in areas which receive rainfall between 200 cm and 100 cm. Such forests are found mainly in the eastern part of India; like northeastern states, along the foothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh. They are also found on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.

(b)Dry Deciduous Forest: The dry deciduous forests are found in those regions which receive rainfall between 100 cm and 70 cm. Such forests are found in the rainier parts of the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

Teak, bamboo, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun, mulberry are some of the commercially important trees in these forests. Lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant are the common animals in these forests. Additionally, a large variety of birds, lizards, snakes and tortoises are found in these forests.

The Thorn Forests and Scrubs

• Thorn forests grow in those regions which receive less than 70 cm of rainfall. This type of vegetation is found in the north-western part of India, e.g. Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
• The main plant species in such a forest are acacia, palms, euphorbias and cactus. The trees are scattered and they have long roots which go very deep in the ground. The stems are succulent to conserve water. Leaves are usually modified into thorns to prevent evaporation. Camel, rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass, horse, etc. are the common animals in thorny forests.

Montane Forests

The forests in the mountainous areas are called montane forest. Different types of vegetation are found at different altitudes in the mountains.

(a) The wet temperate type of forest is found between a height of 1000 and 2000 metre. Evergreen broad-leaf trees such as oak and chestnut abound in such forests.

(b) Temperate forests are found between the heights of 1500 and 3000 metre. Coniferous trees; like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar abound in such forests.

(c) Alpine vegetation are found are heights of more than 3600 metre.

These forests are mainly found along the southern slopes of the Himalayas and at high altitudes in southern and north-eastern India. Kashmir stag, spotted deer, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear, rare red panda, sheep and goats are the common animals in these forests.

Mangrove Forests

Mangrove forests are found in the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Godavarai and the Kaveri. Roots of the mangrove plants are submerged under water. Hollow roots grow out vertically above water so that roots can breathe. Sundari tree is the most common tree in such forests; especially in the Sunderban Delta. Royal Bengal Tiger is the most famous animal of these forests. Additionally, turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are found in these forests.

WILD LIFE

There are more than 89,000 animal species in India. There are more than 1200 species of birds in India. Elephants are found in the hot wet forests of Assam, Karnataka and Kerala. One-horned rhinos are found in the swampy and marshy lands of Assam and West Bengal. Wild ass and camels are found in the Rann of Kachchh and Thar Desert. Indian bison, nilgai, chousingha, gazel and many other species of deer and some other animals are found in India. India is the only country in the world which has both tigers and lions.

• There are fourteen biosphere reserves in India. Four out of these, the Sunderbans in the West Bengal, Nanda Devi in Uttaranchal, the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu and the Nilgiris (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) have been included in the world network of Biosphese reserves.
• The fourteen biosphere reserves are: Sunderbans, Gulf of Mannar, the Nilgiris, Nanda Devi, Nokrek, Great Nicobar, Manas, Simlipal, Dihang-Dibang, Dibru Saikhowa, Agasthyamalai, Kanchenjunga, Pachmari, Achanakmar-Amarkantak.
• Project Tiger, Project Rhino, Project Great Indian Bustard and many other ecodevelopmental projects have been introduced.
• 89 National Parks, 49 Wildlife sanctuaries and Zoological gardens are set up to take care of Natural heritage.

Poverty as a Challenge

Poverty -
A situation when one is not able to fulfill even the minimum basic necessities (food, clothing and shelter) required to sustain the life. When lots of people suffer from same situation it is termed as poverty. India has the largest single concentration of the poor in the world. This illustrates the seriousness of the challenge.
Poverty as seen by Social Scientists
Poverty is looked through other social indicators like illiteracy level, lack of general resistance due to malnutrition, lack to access to healthcare, lack of job opportunities, lack of access to safe drinking water, sanitation etc.
Poverty Line
A person is considered poor if his or her income or consumption level falls below a given “minimum level” necessary to fulfill basic needs. Poverty line may vary with time and place. While determining the poverty line in India, a minimum level of food requirement, clothing, footwear, fuel and light, educational and medical requirement etc. are determined for subsistence. These physical quantities  are multiplied by their prices in rupees. The total equivalent amount is considered as poverty line. Daily minimum nutritional requirement for a person has been fixed at 2400 calories per person/ per day in rural areas and 2400 calories per person/ per day in urban areas.  On the basis of these calculations, for the year 2011-12, the poverty line for a person was fixed at Rs. 816  per month in rural areas and Rs.1000  per month in urban areas.
For making comparisons between developing countries, many international organisations like the World Bank use a uniform standard for the poverty line: minimum availability of the equivalent of $ 1 per person per day.
Is present methodology of poverty estimation appropriate?
No, the present methodology of poverty estimation is not appropriate.  It is about a ‘minimum’ subsistence level of living rather than a ‘reasonable’ level of living. Many scholars advocate that we must broaden the concept into human poverty.
Poverty Estimates
There is substantial decline in poverty ratios in India from about 55 per cent in 1973 to 21.9 per cent in 2011-12. The proportion of people below poverty line further came down to about 26 per cent in 2000. The number of poor declined from 407.1 million in 2004-05 to 269.3 million in 2011-12 with an average annual decline of 2.2 percentage points during 2004-05 to 2011-12.
Vulnerable Groups
(i) Most vulnerable to poverty are scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households.
(ii) Among the economic groups, the most vulnerable groups are the rural agricultural labour households and the urban casual labour households.
(iii) Some recent studies have shown that except for the scheduled tribe households, all the other three groups i.e. scheduled castes, rural agricultural labourers and the urban casual labour households have seen a decline in poverty in the 1990s.
(iv) Women, elderly people and female infants are systematically denied equal access to resources available to the family. Therefore women, children (especially the girl child) and old people are poorest of the poor.
Inter State Disparities
(i) States with poverty ratio more than the national average: Orissa, Bihar, Assam, Tripura and Uttar Pradesh are the most poverty ridden states of India. The poverty ration in these states is much higher than the national average. Bihar and Orissa are the poorest states with poverty ratio of 33.7 and 37.6 respectively.
(ii) States with poverty ratio less than the national average: There has been a significant decline in poverty ratio in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and West Bengal.
(iii) States with low poverty ratio: Punjab, Haryana, Goa, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu Kashmir
Global Poverty Scenario
(i) Poverty declined substantially in China and South-east Asian countries as a result of rapid economic growth and massive investments in human resource development.
(ii) In the countries of South Asia (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan) the decline has not been as rapid.
(iii) In Sub-Saharan Africa, poverty in fact rose from 51 per cent in 1981 to 47 per cent in 2008.
(iv) In Latin America, the ratio of poverty remained the same.
Causes of Poverty
(i) British Rule
(ii) Rural Economy
(iii) Heavy Pressure of Population
(iv) Lack of Proper Industrialisation
(v) Social factors
Anti Poverty Measures
(a) Promotion of Economic Growth :
Since the eighties, India’s economic growth has been one of the fastest in the world. The higher growth rates have helped significantly in the reduction of poverty. It is becoming clear that there is a strong link between economic growth and poverty reduction. Economic growth widens opportunities and provides the resources needed to invest in human development. This also encourages people to send their children, including the girl child, to schools in the hope of getting better economic returns from investing in education.
(b)Targeted Anti - Poverty Programmes :
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGA) 2005 : Septempber 2005, 100 days assured employment, 200 districts to be extended to 600 districts, if not provided employment within 15 days will be entitled to unemployment allowance, often termed as 'Right to Work'.
National Food for Work Programme (NFWP) 2004 : introduced in 150 most backward districts, rural poor who are in need of wage employment, and to do manual unskilled work. :
Prime Minister Rozgar Yozana (PMRY) : self employment opportunity to educated unemployed youth in Rural areas & small towns
Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP) : to create self employment opportunities in rural areasand small towns
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) : to bring the poor families above poverty line by organising them into self help group
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yozana (PMGY) : central assistance for basic services such as primary health, primary education, rural shelter, rural drinking water and rural electrification
Antyodaya Anna Yozana (AAY) :
Assessment of poverty –alleviation programmes:
On the positive side, the incidence of poverty has declined in India.  Whereas in 1973, about 55 percent of India’s population lived below poverty. This ratio has currently come down to 26 percent.
On the negative side, poverty reduction remains India’s most compelling challenge. About one-fourth of India’s total population, i.e., about 260 million persons, live below the line of poverty. This shows that the poverty alleviation programmes have not lived up to the expectations. The major weaknesses of these programmes have been as follows :
(i) Lack of proper implementation.
(ii) Lack of right targeting
(iii) Overlapping of schemes.
(iv) Non-delivery of benefits to the targeted groups.
The Challenges Ahead
(i) Despite the progress, poverty reduction remains India’s most compelling challenge.
(ii) The official defination of poverty captures only a limited part of what poverty really means to people. It is about a “minimum” subsistence level of living rather than a “reasonable” level of living. We must broaden the concept into human poverty.
(iii) With development the defination of what constitutes poverty also changes. Eradication of poverty is always a moving target. Hopefully we will be able to provide the minimum “necessary” in terms of only income to all people by the end of the next decade. 

ASSET TEST

The ASSET Test is published and distributed by the American College Testing (ACT) program. The ASSET exam is used most often as a diagnostic tool for students in community colleges and technical schools.
The purpose of the ASSET test is to spotlight areas of student difficulty, so that remedial measures can be taken before the chances for success are impaired. The ASSET test is generally given to students after they have been enrolled and accepted in a school or technical college training program. Sometimes, the ASSET test is used as a placement tool during admission to academic programs. The ASSET test can help school administrators advise students about placement into particular college course levels and programs.

For a better preparation, can try these sample papers

For Class 6
https://www.scribd.com/doc/247663930/Asset-SST-Class6
https://www.scribd.com/doc/247663023/ASSET-SST-CLASS-6

For Class 8
https://www.scribd.com/doc/247664567/Asset-SST-Class-8

For class 9 & 10
https://www.scribd.com/doc/247659217/ASSET-SST-CLASS-9-10

PSA Exam on 20th November, 2014

CBSE will conduct PSA Exam for class-9 and class-11 in all schools on 20th November, 2014 (Thursday) from  from 10.00 a.m. to 12.00 noon. The total marks have been reduced to 60 from 90 last year BUT there is no change in number of questions.

Salient features of this test are as under:

• It is compulsory for all students of classes IX and XI.
• It comprises of a total of 60 items of MCQ type and carries 60 marks.
• The test will be held from 10.00A.M. to 12.00 noon.
• The test assesses life skills related to the following three domains: Language conventions, qualitative reasoning and quantitative reasoning.
• The items included in the test aim to assess students’ ability to process, interpret and use information rather than assessing their prior subject matter knowledge.
• The assessment in English or Hindi include items to test grammar, usage, vocabulary in context and passage completion.
• The question paper will be bilingual.
• PSA score will be counted towards FA4 which is 10% of total assessments for class-IX. This score will be reflected equally in one language (English or Hindi), Mathematics, Science and Social Science. Class-XI students will be issued a separate certificate for the same.
• Students studying in class X and XII in the current session (who appeared in PSA while studying in classes IX and XI during the previous session) who wish to improve in PSA are allowed to do so. Related information may be indicated clearly at the time of submission of list of candidates (LOC) for 2015 annual examination.
• There will be no separate registration for appearing in PSA.
• A nominal fee of Rs.100/- per student for appearing in PSA is to be submitted by the school at the time of submission of other details.

For material related to PSA, do visit the following link
https://www.scribd.com/doc/246980571/Problem-Solving-Assessment-Paper
https://www.scribd.com/doc/246980099/Problem-Solving-Assessment-Paper
https://www.scribd.com/doc/246968825/Problem-Solving-Assessment-Support-Material-Class-IX

Answer Key of NTSE Stage II 2014, conducted on 19.10.14

Answer key of NTSE Stage II 2014 have been issued by NCERT on 10.11.14
objections on the answer key must reach NCERT by 24. November. 2014
for further information go through the link

http://www.ncert.nic.in/programmes/talent_exam/pdf_files/ntse_2014_Ans_key.pdf

Corrections in the official answer key of NTSE 15 (Stage I) Rajasthan issued by RBSE on 10.11.14

RBSE has came out with the official answer key of NTSE 15 (First Stage) Rajasthan. 

Has invited online corrections by 17.11.14 from the students. 

I request you to please mail the below mentioned corrections to RBSE on

ntse.sstse.bser@gmail.com

Respected Sir,

We are highly thankful for such an early release of NTSE 15 answer key by RBSE. Here I would like to bring to your kind attention, the answers which I think are wrong in your answer key of SAT paper in the Social Science subject.

Q. 69. In India total forest area as per Forest Report, 2011 is

(1) 21.05 % (2) 20.06% (3) 22.07% (4) 19.80%

Answer given in your key is (3) i.e. 22.07 %

My answer - (1) 21.05%

According to Class IX, Geography book, Contemporary India - I (NCERT book), page no 43, Right hand side in a box given ‘Do you know’ says - According to India State of Forest Report 2011, the Forest cover in India is 21.05%. The same thing is written in the Page no. 2 Appendix.

Q. 70. Which state in India has Kaziranga National Park ?

(1) Bihar (2) West Bengal (3) Jharkhand (4) Assam

Answer given in your key is (3) i.e. Jharkhand

My Answer - (4) Assam

According to Class IX, Geography book, Contemporary India - I (NCERT book), page no 49,

The Map showing Wildlife Reserves in India, its clear that Kaziranga lies in Assam.

Q.71. Which type of resource is Solar Energy ?

(1) Replenishable (2) Human Made (3) Biotic (4) Non-recyclable

Answer given in your key is (4) Non-recyclable

My Answer - (1) Replenishable

According to Class X, Geography book, Contemporary India - II (NCERT book), page no 2

Types of Resources, On the Basis of Exhaustibility

Renewable Resources : The resourcs which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical processes are known as replenishable resources. For example, solar and wind energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc.

Q.72. Hirakud Dam is situated on the River 

(1) Godavari (2) Tapi (3) Mahanadi (4) Yamuna

Answer given in your key is (4) Yamuna

My Answer - (3) Mahanadi

According to Class X, Geography book, Contemporary India - II (NCERT book), page no 28,

The Map showing India : Major Rivers and Dams, its clear that Hirakud Dam is on Mahanadi.

Q.73. Non-food crop is

(1) Wheat (2) Rice (3) Cotton (4) Bajra

Answer given in your key is (4) Bajra

My Answer - (3) Cotton

According to Class X, Geography book, Contemporary India - II (NCERT book), page no 42,

Fiber Crops : Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the major fiber crops grown in India.

On Page no. 38, Bajra is described under the heading Millets and Millets is described under the food crops.

Q.74. Which of the following is a non-ferrous mineral ?

(1) Bauxite (2) Manganese (3) Nickel (4) Cobalt

Answer given in your key is (4) Cobalt

My Answer - (1) Bauxite

According to Class X, Geography book, Contemporary India - II (NCERT book), Chapter name - Mineral and Energy Resources, page no 55,

Bauxite is described under the heading Non-Ferrous Minerals

Q. 75. Seaport of India is 

(1) Delhi (2) Hyderabad (3) Vishakhapatnam (4) Amritsar

Answer given in your key is (2) Hyderabad

My Answer - (3) Vishakhapatnam

According to Class X, Geography book, Contemporary India - II (NCERT book), Chapter name - Lifelines of National Economy, Page no 89

the Map showing India : Major ports and International Airports clearly says that Vishakhapatnam is a Sea Port

Q.83. How many seats are reserved for Scheduled Tribes in Lok Sabha ?

(1) 84 (2) 41 (3) 32 (4) 47

Answer given in your key is (2) 41

My Answer - (4) 47

According to Class IX, Civics book, Democratic Politics (NCERT book), Chapter name Electoral Politics, page no 62

Reserved Constituencies - Currently, in the Lok Sabha, 84 seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes and 47 for the Scheduled Tribes (as on 1 September 2012).

In the old editions of NCERT, its written that 41 seats are reserved for Scheduled Tribes

NTSE 2015 Stage I (Rajasthan) Official Answer Key

RBSE has come out with the official answer key of NTSE 2015 and SSTSE 2014
Question no. 20, 40, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75 & 83 are given wrong. Do check your answer carefully

http://rajeduboard.rajasthan.gov.in/NTSE2015-SSTSE2014-ANS.pdf

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE IDEA OF THE NATION
Steps taken by French Revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people –
Ideas of La patrie and Le citoyen, new French Flag, Estates General was elected and renamed National Assembly, new hymns, oaths taken, centralized administration system, uniform system of weights  and measures were introduced, regional dialects discourages and French became the common language .
Civil Code of 1804 / Napoleonic Code
Equality before the law was established, secured the right to property, simplified administrative measures, abolished feudal system, freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues, guild restrictions were removed, transport and communication systems were improved.
The reactions of the people were mixed
Initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility because Napoleon took away political freedom, increased taxes, imposed censorship and forced people to join French army.

THE MAKING OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
“Habsburg Empire was a patchwork of many different regions and Peoples”.
Different people residing at different areas spoke different languages.  In Alpine and Bohemia region people spoke German language, in Lombardy and Venetia – Italian language, Hungary half of the population spoke Magyar other half spoke variety of dialects, in Galicia people spoke Polish. Other then these there also lived a mass of subject peasant peoples. Such differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity.
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
Aristocracy – Lived a common way of life, owned estates and town houses, spoke French connected by ties of marriages, numerically a small group.
Peasantry – majority of population
Middle class – With the growth of towns and emergence of commercial classes, new social groups came into being, these were smaller in number, among the educated liberal middle classes the ideas of nationality gained popularity.
What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for ?
Liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality for all before the law, the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament.
Drawback – Equality before law did not necessarily stood for everyone, right of vote was get elected was granted only to property owning men, it reduced women to the status of a minor.
In the economic sphere liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. This was a difficult task as each state possessed its own currency and weights and measures.
Zollverein – It abolished tariff barriers, reduced the number of currencies to two, and promoted a network of railways to stimulate mobility.
A New Conservatism after 1815
Believed that established institutions of state and society should be preserved, but wanted to continue with the changes initiated by Napoleon.
Treaty of Vienna (1815) – Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France, a series of states created on the French boundary, German confederation was left untouched, main intentions was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon.
The Revolutionaries
A commitment to oppose monarchial forms, and to fight for liberty and freedom, creation of nation –states.
Giuseppe Mazzini - A member of the secret society of Carbonari, attempted a revolution in Liguria, founded Young Italy in Marseellies, Young Europe in Berne. He believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind, small states and kingdoms had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations.
THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS
First Upheaval took place in France in July 1830. Bourbon kings were overthrown and a constitutional monarchy was established.
Belgium broke away from the United kingdoms of the Netherlands.
Greece which had been a part of the Ottomon Empire since the fifteenth century, struggled for independence. Lord Byron organized funds and went for the war, the treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
A cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment, criticized the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder tried to discovered culture among common people, through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances.
Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music.
The clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.
Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
There were more seekers of jobs than employment. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.
In 1848, the Population of Paris came out on the roads and Louis Philippe was forced to flee and National Assembly proclaimed a Republic.
In 1845, weavers in Silesia led a revolt against contractors.
1848 : The Revolution of the Liberals
Men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
Frankfurt Parliament – Members of political association’s elected 831 representatives, on 18 May 1848 these representatives took their places in the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul and drafted a Constitution for a German nation. It was opposed by King of Prussia as well as it lost its social basis (no rights were given to workers and women). It forced the autocratic monarchs to introduce some changes – serfdom and bonded labour was abolished, Hungarians were granted more autonomy.
THE MAKING OF GERMANY AND ITALY
Otto Van Bismarck with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Three war over seven years ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. Kaiser William I of Prussia  headed the new German Empire.
Italy Unified
Italy was divided into seven states of which only Sardinia Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Princely state. Initially a unification programme was initiated by Giuseppe Mazzini, but it failed. Chief Miniser Cavour  led the movement, with the help of Giuseppe Garibaldi. In 1961 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
The Strange Case of Britain
In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. The Act of Union 1707 resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’. The Catholic clans of Scotland and Ireland were suppressed. A new ‘British Nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture.
VISUALISING THE NATION
Nations were portrayed as female figure (Allegory), it did not stand for any particular woman in real life, it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form.
In France the allegory was christened as Marianne, in Germany – Germania became the allegory.
NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM
Balkans led to the First World War
Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation was under the control of the Ottomon Empire. The idea of Romantic nationalism made this region very explosive. Te Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of each other. European powers were also looking for the extension of their control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.

Climate

Climate -
Refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time.
Weather -
Refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time
The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. This type of climate is found mainly in the south and the Southeast Asia.
Despite an overall unity in the general pattern there are perceptible regional variations in climatic conditions within the country.
Climatic Controls -
There are six major controls of the climate of any place. They are : latitude, altitude, pressure and wind system, distance from the sea, ocean currents and relief features.
Factors Affecting India’s Climate
(a) Latitude
(b) Altitude
(c) Pressure and Winds
Jet Stream : These are a narrow belt of high altitude westerly winds in the troposphere. Thier sped varies from about 110 km/h in summer to about 184 km/h in winter
(a) Subtropical westerly jet streams
(b) Tropical easterly jet streams
The Indian Monsoon
Facts important for understanding the mechanism of the monsoons -
(a) The differential heating and cooling of land and water
(b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(c) The presence of the high-presure area, east of Madagascar
(d) Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated
(e) Movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula.
Southern Oscillation -
Changes in the pressure conditions over the southern oceans also affect the monsoons. Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. But in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has lower pressure in comparison to the eastern Indian Ocean. This periodic change in pressure conditions is known as Southern Oscillation.
The Onset of the Monsoon and Withdrawal
Onset of the Monsoon
The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula generally by the first week of June. Around the time of its arrival, the normal rainfall increases suddenly and continues constantly for several days. This is known as the ‘burst’ of the monsoon.
(a) Arabian Sea Branch
(i) Entering from the Western Ghats
(ii) Entering from the Rann of Kuchchh
(b) Bay of Bengal Branch
(i) Entering into the North-east region
(ii) Entering into the Ganga Valley region.
Withdrawal  of the Monsoon
Begins in the norhtwestern states of India by early September. By mid-October , it withdraws completely from the northern half of the peninsula.
The Seasons
The Cold Weather Season
The cold weather season begins from mid-November in northern India and stays till February. December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of India. The temperature decreases as one moves from south to the north. Days are warm and the nights are cold. Frost is common in the north and the higher slopes of the Himalayas experience snowfall. The northeast trade winds prevail over the country. They blow from land to sea and hence, for most part of the country, it is a dry season. In the northern part of the country, a feeble high-pressure region develops, with light winds moving outwards from this area. The weather is normally marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and feeble variable winds.
The Hot Weather Season
Due to the apparent movement of the sun, the global heat belt shifts northward. As such, from March to May, it is hot weather season in India. Temperature increases from south to north. In peninsular India, temperatures remain lower. High temperature between 38º C and 48º C in the plains. Local dust storms accompanied with light rains. Hot dry winds, ‘loo’ is common in May and June. Kerala and Karnataka coast receives pre-monsoon showers (Mango showers). West Bengal and Assam are affected by northwesterly winds. (Kalbaisakhi).
Advancing Monsoon
By early June, the low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifieswhich attracts the trade winds of the southern hemisphere. These winds cross the equator and blow in a south westerly dirction entering the Indian peninsula as the south-west monsoon.
Monsoon has a tendency to have ‘breaks’ in rainfall. It has wet and dry spells. The monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time. They are interspersed with rainless intervals. These breaks in monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon trough.
The monsoon is known for its uncertainties. The alternation of dry and wet spells vary in intensity, frequency and duration.
Retreating Monsoon
During October-November, with the apparent movement of the sun towards the south, the monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains becomes weaker. This is gradually replaced by a high-pressure system. The south west monsoon winds weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By the beginning of October, the monsoon withdraws from the Northern Plains.
Owing to the conditions of high temperature and himidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive during the day. This is commonly known as ‘October heat’.
The low-presure conditions, over north-western India, get transferred to the Bay of Bengal bny early November. This shift is associated with the occurrence of cyclonic depressions, which originate over the Andaman Sea.
Distribution Of Rainfall
The western coast and northeastern India receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annualy. However , it is less than 60 cm in western Rajasthan and adjoining part of Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. Rainfall is equally low in the interior of the Deccan plateau and east of the Sahyadris. A third area of low precipitation is around Leh in Jammu and Kashmir. The rest of the country receives moderate rainfall.
Monsoon as a Unifying Bond
There is great diversity in the climatic conditions due to location, extent and relief features. But these diversities are subdued by the monsoons, which prevails over the whole country. These monsoons are active for just three to four months and rest of the year India remains almost thirsty. This water scarcity is felt all over the country. Thus the arrival of the monsoon is most welcome; it changes the Indian landscape, gives impetus to agricultural activities, the total life of the Indian people revolves around the monsoons, including festivals.

Electoral Politics

Why do we need elections?

Through elections:

• Voters can choose the people who would make law for them.
• Voters can choose the people who would form government and take major decisions for them.
• Voters can choose the political party which would guide the government and law making.

Features of a democratic election:

• Every adult citizen should be able to choose. This means that every adult citizen should have one vote and each vote shall carry equal weight.
• Elections should offer choices to the people. There should be various political parties and candidates to choose from.
• The choice of selecting the rulers should be offered at regular intervals. In India, elections are normally held after every five years.
• The most preferred candidate should get elected. In India, we follow the first past the post system, i.e. the candidate who secures the maximum number of valid votes is declared a winner.
• Elections should be held in free and fair manner and people should be in a position to cast their votes without fear or favour.

Is it good to have political competition?

People often complain that political competition is not good for the society as it tends to breed unhealthy attitude and corruption. Politicians try to win an election by hook or crook. But we should look at the positives also. There are many examples of a powerful politician getting defeated in an election. Many politicians lose elections in spite of putting all the money and muscle power at his disposal. Since politicians have a fear of losing the election so they have no other way but to work for people’s welfare. Chances of winning in an election also work as a motivational factor for a politician. Bay and large, elections are fair in India and political competition plays an important role in making it fair.

System of Elections in India

Electoral Constituency: For parliamentary elections, the country is divided into more than 543 electoral constituencies. A constituency is usually made on the basis of population of a particular geographical area. Similarly, assembly constituencies are made in different states for the elections to the state assemblies. Voters in a constituency elect their representative.

Reserved Constituency: The constitution makers were of the opinion that people from the oppressed sections of the society should be given some leverage so that they could enhance their political representation. They made the provision for reserved constituencies for members of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. As on 1st September 2012, there are 84 seats reserved for the Scheduled Castes and 47 seats reserved for the Scheduled Tribes. Only the candidate from SC or ST can contest from these seats. But voters from all communities shall vote for the candidates in such constituencies. Now-a-days, reservation for OBCs (Other Backward Classes) is also given for elections to the local government bodies; like panchayats and municipalities. The percentage of reserved seats is same as the percentage of these communities in the population of India.

Voter’s List: A list of all eligible voters is prepared for each constituency a few months before the elections. Voter’s list is updated from time to time to include the new voters and delete those who may have left the area or may have died. Voter’s list is also called electoral roll.

Election Photo Identity Card: Once the voter’s list is finalized, all the voter’s are expected to come to get election photo identity card or voter ID card. The provision for voter ID card has been made to prevent surrogate voting and bogus voting. But it is not necessary to carry your voter ID card to the polling booth. You can also carry any other valid ID proof; like driving license, ration card or PAN card.

Nomination of Candidates: Once the election dates are announced, the candidates need to file their nomination. When a candidate is selected by a political party as a candidate, it is usually known as party ‘ticket’. While filing the nomination, the candidate has to provide certain details and some security deposit. Some of the details required from the candidate are as follows:

• Details of serious criminal cases pending against the candidate.
• Details of assets and liabilities of the candidate and family members.
• Educational qualification of the candidate.

Election Campaign: The candidates and political party conduct election campaign to educate the voters about their future programmes and policies. Political parties hold rallies, road-shows, mohalla sabhas, etc. They also spend on hoardings, advertising, banners, posters and pamphlets. Political parties usually try to focus the voters’ attention on some big issues; like poverty alleviation, corruption, employment generation, provision for electricity, water, food, etc.

According to law, following activities are banned during election campaign:

• Threatening or bribing the voters.
• Asking for votes in the name of religion or caste.
• Use of government resources in election campaign.
• Spending more than Rs. 25 lakh in a Lok Sabha constituency and more than Rs. 10 lakh in an assembly constituency.

Model Code of Conduct: One the election dates are announced the model code of conduct is enforced by the Election Commission. This code of conduct prohibits the following:

• Use of any place of worship for election propaganda.
• Use of government vehicles, officials or aircraft for election campaign.
• Laying of foundation stone for any project and announcing any big ticket programme.

Polling and counting of votes: India is one of the few countries where electronic voting machines (EVMs) are used for voting. One needs to press the button against the electoral symbol of his choice to register a vote. EVMs provide many benefits compared to traditional ballot papers. EVMs are lightweight and much less number of EVMs is required to cover a constituency. Counting of votes is less time consuming and more accurate through EVMs. Now-a-days, even paper trail can be printed from an EVM. It is because of the use of EVMs that poll results are announced within a day of beginning of counting.

During the days of ballot papers, carrying the ballot boxes to and from the polling booth used to be a tedious task. Counting of votes used to take three to four days. Chances of malpractices were far too high.

Election Commission

The Election Commission is a constitutional body which is independent from the government. The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) is appointed by the President of India. Once the election dates are announced, it is impossible to remove the CEC. Moreover, the whole civil administration comes under the Election Commission after the election dates are announced. These provisions ensure that the Election Commission remains and independent and impartial body. Hence, it can be said that elections in India are really democratic.

Popular Participation

• Contrary to perceptions, the popular participation in elections in India has shown an increasing trend. The recent assembly elections held in four states in 2013, saw voter turnout up to 80% in some constituencies.
• It is usually the voters from the poor class which participate with full zest in the Indian elections. People from the middle classes and upper classes usually show aloofness towards the electoral process. But the recent assembly elections surprisingly saw a very high turnout from the middle classes and upper classes as well.
• These are signs of a vibrating democracy where people are taking active interest in the electoral process.

Acceptance of Election Outcomes: It is often blamed that too many malpractices take place in the elections in India. But this is nothing but a perception and reality can be quite different. The following facts indicate towards the democratic nature of elections in India.

• Ruling parties routinely lose elections in India. In many states, a particular political party is not able to continue in power for more than one term.
• A large number of sitting MLAs and MPs lose elections.
• Many politicians with money and muscle power lose elections.
• Electoral outcomes are usually accepted by the losing political party as ‘people’s verdict’ and the life goes on.

Challenges to Free and Fair Elections:

• Candidates from big political parties enjoy an advantage in terms of money and resources. This does not allow a level playing field for smaller parties and independent candidates.
• People with criminal background are well entrenched in some constituencies.
• Some families have been dominating different political parties. This trend rules out the possibility of a new entrant rising up.
• The major political parties are more or less similar in their policies and programmes and thus voters may not have a real choice.

IESO Entrance Test Papers

IESO - International Earth Science Olympiad
This is a three stage exam conducted in India by Geological Society of India and XI. In first stage about 20 students are selected. A camp is held for the selected students form where 4 students are selected to represent India at the international level.
If a student of class IX was not able to make to IJSO, must go for IESO exam. This is an exam conducted by a body of Government of India and allows your to represent India on the international level.
Try the papers given below and if you feel ( people who have scored 55/100 has cleared first stage) that you can make it to the next level, do some serious preparations


https://www.scribd.com/doc/245241358/IESO-2010-Entrance-Test-QUESTIONS-WITH-ANSWERS
https://www.scribd.com/doc/245241822/IESO-2011-Question-and-Answer-key-for-Entrance-Exam